Reading: Peter (ISBE Article)

Peter

The data for this article is found chiefly in the four Gospels; in Acts 1 through 15; in Galatians 1,2; and in the two Epistles of Peter.

1. Name and Early Career:

Simon was the original name of Peter, the son of Jonas (or John), and brother of Andrew, a disciple of John the Baptist, as Peter also may have been. A fisherman by occupation, he was an inhabitant of Bethsaida on the Sea of Galilee, though subsequently he dwelt with his family at Capernaum (Matthew 4:18; Matthew 8:14; Matthew 10:2; Matthew 16:16-17; Matthew 17:25; Mark 1:16,29,30,36; Luke 5:3-5,8,10; Luke 22:31; Luke 24:34; John 1:40-44).

2. First Appearance in Gospel History:

His first appearance in Gospel history is in John 1:35-42, when Andrew, having discovered Jesus to be the Messiah, "first findeth his brother Simon," and "brought him unto Jesus." On which occasion, Jesus said, "You shall be called Cephas," an Aramaic surname whose Greek synonym is Petrós, or Peter, meaning " rock" or "stone." For Peter's calling by Jesus while he was fishing with his brother Andrew see Matthew 4:19; Mark 1:16,17; Luke 5:3, and for a list of the apostles see Matthew 10:2, Mark 3:14-19; and Luke 6:13,14.

3. Life-Story:

The life-story of Peter falls into two parts: first, from his call to the ascension of Christ; secondly, from that event to the close of his earthly career.

(1) First Period:

The first period again may be conveniently divided into the events prior to the Passion of Christ and those following. There are about ten of the former: 1) The healing of his wife's mother at Capernaum (Matthew 8:14 ff). 2) The great catch of fishes, and its effect in his self-abasement and surrender of his all to Jesus (Luke 5:1-11). 3) His call to the apostolic office and his spiritual equipment for that call (Matthew 10:2). 4) His attachment to his Master, as shown in his attempt to walk upon the waves (Matthew 14:28). 5) The same attachment as shown at a certain crisis, in his inquiry "Lord, to whom shall we go?" (John 6:68). 6 and 7) His noble confession of Jesus as the Christ, the Son of the living God, and, alas, the rebuke that followed it (Matthew 16:13-23). 8) The privileges he enjoyed with James and John as a witness of the raising of Jairus' daughter (Mark 5:37) and 9) the transfiguration of his Lord (Matthew 17:1-5). 10) and finally, the incident of the tribute money found only in Matthew 17:24.

The events beginning at the Passion are easily recalled because they are found in all the Gospels and about in the same order. They commence with the washing of his feet by the Master at the time of the last Passover, and the two mistakes he made as to the spiritual import of that act (John 13:1-10). Then there was the first of his presumptuous boastings as to the strength of his devotion to his Master, and the warning of Satan's upcoming assault upon him (Luke 22:31-34), which was twice repeated before the betrayal in Gethsemane (Matthew 26:31-35). His going to the Garden of Gethsemane to behold the Saviour's deepest distress, the charge to watch and pray, and the failure to do so through sleepiness (Matthew 26:36-46). The mistaken courage in severing the ear of Malchus (John 18:10-12). The forsaking of his Lord while Jesus was being led away as a prisoner, his following Him afar off, and his admission into the high priest's palace. Finally, his denial "before them all," and his confirmation of it by an oath. Then his remembrance of the warning when "the Lord turned and looked upon Peter," and his tears of bitterness as he went out (Matthew 26:56-58; Mark 14:66-72; Luke 22:54-62; John 18:15-27).

Nothing more is heard of Peter until the morning of the resurrection, when, on the first tidings of the event, he and John run to see the tomb (John 20:1-10). His name is especially mentioned to the women by the angel in Mark 16:7, and on the same day he sees Jesus alive before any of the rest of the Twelve (Luke 24:34, 1 Corinthians 15:5). Subsequently, at the Sea of Tiberias, Peter is given an opportunity for a threefold confession of Jesus whom he had thrice denied. And he is once more assigned to the apostolic office; a prediction follows as to the kind of death he should die, and he also receives a command to follow his Lord (John 21).

(2) Second Period:

The second period, from the ascension of Christ to the conversion of Paul, is more briefly sketched. After the ascension, of which Peter was doubtless a witness, he "stood up in the midst of the brethren" in the upper room in Jerusalem to counsel the choice of a successor to Judas (Acts 1:15-26). On the day of Pentecost, he preached the first gospel sermon (Acts 2). Later, in company with John, instrumentally healed a lame man, addressed the people in the Temple, was arrested, defended himself before the Sanhedrin and returned to his "own company" (Acts 3; 4). He was again arrested and beaten (Acts 5); after a time he was sent by the church at Jerusalem to communicate the Holy Spirit to the disciples at Samaria (Acts 8). Returning to Jerusalem (where presumably Paul visits him (see Galatians 1:18)), he afterward "traveled about the country." He healed Aeneas at Lydda and raised Dorcas from the dead at Joppa. He saw a vision upon the housetop that influenced him to preach the gospel to the Gentile centurion Cornelius at Caesarea, and explained this action before "the apostles and the brothers throughout Judea" (Acts 9:32-41- Acts 11:18).

After a while, another persecution arose against the church, and Herod Agrippa, having put James to death, imprisoned Peter with the thought of executing him also. The church prayed on his behalf, however, and miraculous deliverance was given him (Acts 12). Retiring for a while from public attention, he once more came before the church council at Jerusalem, when the question was to be settled as to whether works are needful to salvation, adding his testimony to that of Paul and Barnabas in favor of justification by faith only (Acts 15 ).

Later, he was found at Antioch having fellowship with Gentile Christians. But when "certain men came from James," then he drew back and separated himself, fearing them that were of the circumcision group, for which Paul confronted Peter to his face (Galatians 2:11-14). 

Little more is known of Peter, except that he traveled more or less extensively, being accompanied by his wife as Paul wrote in 1 Corinthians 9:5. He also wrote two epistles, the second of which he wrote as he approached the end of his life (2 Peter 1:12-15). 

The tradition is that he died a martyr at Rome about 67 AD, when about 75 years old. His Lord and Master had predicted a violent death for him (John 21:18,19), which it is thought came to pass by crucifixion under Nero. It is said that at his desire he was crucified head downward, feeling unworthy to resemble his Master in his death.

4. Character:

The character of Peter is transparent and easily analyzed, and it is doubtless true that no other in Scriptural history is drawn for us more clearly or forcefully. He appears to have been a leader among the apostles on many occasions. He is always named first in every list of them and was their frequent spokesman. He was hopeful, bold, confident, courageous, frank, impulsive, energetic, vigorous, strong, and loving, and faithful to his Master. It is true that he was liable to change and inconsistency, and because of his temperament, he sometimes appeared forward and rash. Yet, as another says, "His virtues and faults had their common root in his enthusiastic disposition," and the latter were at length overruled by divine grace into the most beautiful humility and meekness, as shown in his two Epistles.

The leadership above referred to, however, should not lead to the supposition that he possessed any supremacy over the other apostles, of which there is no proof. Such supremacy was not conferred upon him by his Master, it was not claimed by himself, and was not conceded by his associates. See in this connection Matthew 23:8-12; Acts 15:13,14; 2 Corinthians 12:11; and Galatians 2:11.

When Christ referred to the meaning of his name in Matthew 16:18, He said, "Upon this rock I will build my church," but He did not intend to teach that His church would be built upon Peter, but upon Himself as confessed by Peter in Matthew 16:16. Peter is careful to affirm this in 1 Peter 2:4-9.  Moreover, when Christ said in Matthew 16:19, "I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven,...", He invested him with no power not possessed in common with his brethren, since they also afterward received the same commission (Matthew 18:18; John 20:23).

5. Writings:

The two Epistles of Peter were written presumably late in life, as Peter's words in 2 Peter 1:12-15 show. Both were addressed to the same audience, chiefly Jewish Christians scattered abroad in the different provinces of Asia Minor, among whom Paul and his associates had planted the gospel (1 Peter 1:1,2: 2 Peter 3:1). 

(1) First Epistle.

The theme of the First Epistle seems to be the living hope into which the Christian has been born and the responsibilities it lays upon him. The living hope is expounded on in 1 Peter 1:1-13, where the requirements begin to be stated, the first group including hope, obedience, godly fear, love to the brethren, and praise (1:13 through 2:10).

The writer drops his pen at this point, to take it up again to address those who were suffering persecution for righteousness' sake, upon whom two more obligations are impressed, submission to authority and testimony to Christ (1 Peter 2:11 through 4:6). The third group that concludes the book begins here, dealing with such themes as spiritual hospitality in the use of heavenly gifts, patience in suffering, fidelity in service, and humility in ministering to one another. The letter was sent to the churches "with the help of Silas, ...a faithful brother," the author affirming that his object in writing was to exhort and testify concerning "the true grace of God" (1 Peter 5:12).

(2) Second Epistle.

His object is the same in both Epistles, to be reminders to stir up their sincere minds (2 Peter 3:1). Like Paul in his Second Epistle to Timothy, he foresees the apostasy in which the professing church will end, the difference being that Paul speaks of it in its last stage when the laity have become infected (2 Timothy 3:1-5; 2 Timothy 4:3,4), while Peter sees it in its origin as traceable to false teachers (2 Peter 2:1-3; 2 Peter 2:15-19). 

In the First Epistle, he wrote to exhort and to testify, and, in the Second Epistle, it is to caution and warn. This warning was, as a whole, against falling from grace (2 Peter 3:17,18), and the exhortation for staying in God's grace is contained in 2 Peter 1:2-11. The grounding of it is in 2 Peter 1:12-21, and the occasion of it is in the last two chapters through false teachers. Peter predicted the eminent success of the false teachers (2 Peter 2:2), and their inevitable and dreadful punishment (2 Peter 2:3-9). He also gave a description of them in 2 Peter 2:10-22). The character of their false teaching (2 Peter 3) forms one of the most interesting and significant features of the Epistle, focusing as it does on the Second Coming of Christ.

6. Theology:

The theology of Peter offers an interesting field of study because of its freshness and variety in comparison with that of Paul and John, who are the great theologians of the New Testament.

(1) Messianic Teaching.

In the first place, Peter is unique in his Messianic teaching as indicated in the first part of the Acts, where he is the chief personage, and where for the most part his ministry is confined to Jerusalem and the Jews. The latter, already in covenant relations with Yahweh, had sinned in rejecting Jesus as the Messiah, and Peter's preaching was directed to that point, demanding repentance or a change of mind about Him. The apparent failure of the Old Testament promises concerning the Davidic kingdom (Isaiah 11:10-12; Jeremiah 23:5-8; Ezekiel 37:21-28) was explained by the promise that the kingdom would be set up at the return of Christ (Acts 2:25-31; Acts 15:14-16).

(2) Justification.

But Peter's special ministry to the circumcision is by no means in conflict with that of Paul to the Gentiles, as demonstrated at the point of transition in Acts 10. Up until this time the gospel had been offered to the Jews only, but when they rejected it, Paul said in Acts 13:44-48, they would "now turn to the Gentiles." Accordingly, we find Peter in Acts 15:7-11, side by side with Paul, affirming the great doctrine of justification by faith only. Moreover, it is clear from Peter's Second Epistle (2 Peter 1:1) that his conception of justification from the divine as well as the human side is identical with that of Paul since he speaks of justifying faith as based on the righteousness of our God and Saviour Jesus Christ. As we understand it, this is not the righteousness which God is, but the righteousness that God gives (compare Romans 1:16,17; Romans 3:21-25; 2 Corinthians 5:20,21).

(3) Redemption.

Passing from his oral to his written utterances, Peter is particularly rich in his allusions to the redemptive work of Christ. Limiting ourselves to his First Epistle, the election of the individual believer is seen to be the result of the sprinkling of Christ's blood (1 Peter 1:1); his obedience and godly fear are inspired by the sacrifice of the "lamb without blemish and without spot (1 Peter 1:19). But most interesting are the manner and the connection in which these sublime truths are sometimes set before the reader. For example, an exhortation to submission on the part of household slaves is the occasion for perhaps the most concise and yet comprehensive interpretation of Christ's vicarious sufferings anywhere in the New Testament (1 Peter 2:18-25, especially the last two verses; compare also in its context in 1 Peter 3:18-22).

(4) Future Life.

Next to the redemptive work of Christ, the teaching of Peter about the future life claims attention. The believer has been born into a living hope (1 Peter 1:3); which is an inheritance kept in heaven (1 Peter 1:4); and is associated with praise, and glory and honor at the Second Coming of Jesus Christ (1 Peter 1:7,13; 1 Peter 4:13; 1 Peter 5:4,10; 2 Peter 1:11,16; 2 Peter 3:13; etc.). This hope or inheritance is so real and so precious as to cause rejoicing even in times of grief and trial (1 Peter 1:6). It also stimulates one to holiness of living (1 Peter 1:13-16), to patience in persecution (1 Peter 4:12,13), fidelity in service (1 Peter 5:1-4), stedfastness against temptation (Acts 5:8-10), and growth in grace (2 Peter 1:10,11). It is interesting that the apostle always throws the thought of the present suffering forward into the light of the future glory. It is not as though there were merely an allotment of suffering here, and an allotment of glory by and by, with no relation or connection between the two, but the one is seen to be incident to the other (compare 1Peter 1:7,11; 1 Peter 4:13; 1 Peter 5:1; 2 Peter 3:12,13). It is this circumstance, added to others, that gives Peter the title of the apostle of hope, as Paul has been called the apostle of faith, and John the apostle of love.

(5) Holy Scripture.

Considering their limitations as to space, Peter's Epistles are notable for the emphasis they lay upon the character and authority of the Holy Scriptures. 1 Peter 1:10-12 teaches a threefold relation of the Holy Spirit to the Holy Word as its Author, its Revealer, and its Teacher or Preacher. The same chapter (1 Peter 1:22-25) speaks of its life-giving and purifying power as well as its eternal duration. 1 Peter 2 opens with a declaration of its vital relation to the Christian's spiritual growth. In 1 Peter 4:11, it is shown to be the staple of the Christian's ministry. Practically the whole of the Second Epistle is taken up with the subject. Through the great and precious promises of that Word, Christians become partakers of the divine nature (2 Peter 1:4). That the Scriptures may be remembered is Peter's object in writing as he stated in 2 Peter 1:12-15. The facts of that Word rest on the testimony of eyewitnesses (2 Peter 1:16-18), and its origin is altogether divine (2 Peter 1:20,21); which is as true of the New Testament as of the Old Testament (2 Peter 3:2), including the Epistles of Paul (2 Peter 3:15,16).

(6) Apostasy and Judgment.

This appreciation of the living Word of God finds an antithesis in the solemn warning against apostate teachers and teaching forming the substance of 2 Peter 2 and 3. The theology here is of judgment. It is swift (2 Peter 2:1-3), and the Judge is He who did not spare in ancient time (2 Peter 2:4-7). His delay expresses mercy, but He will come as a thief (2 Peter 3:9,10), and the heavens shall pass away, the earth and its works shall be burned up (2 Peter 3:10). Peter asked in 2 Peter 3:11, "Since everything will be destroyed in this way, what kind of people ought you to be?"

(7) Second Coming of Christ.

Peter's theology concerning judgment is a further illustration of the Messianic character of his instruction. For example, the Second Coming of Christ of which he speaks in the closing chapter of the Second Epistle is not that aspect of it associated with the translation of His church, and of which Paul teaches in 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18, but that pertaining to Israel and the day of Yahweh spoken of by the Old Testament prophets (Isaiah 2:12-22;Revelation 19:11-21; etc.).

Literature.

The history of Peter is treated more or less at length in the introductions to the commentaries on his Epistles, and in works on the life of Christ. But particular reference is made to the following: E. W. Farrar,Early Days of Christianity, London, 1882; J. S. Howson, Studies in the Life of Peter, London, 1883; H. A. Birks, Life and Character of Peter, London, 1887; W. M. Ramsay, The Church in the Roman Empire, London, 1893; Mason Gallagher, Was Peter Ever at Rome? Philadelphia, 1895; A. C. McGiffert, The Apostolic Age, New York, 1897; W. H. Griffith Thomas, The Apostle Peter, London, 1904; G. Matheson, Representative Men of the New Testament, London, 1905; A. J. Southhouse, The Making of Simon Peter, New York, 1906; A. C. Gaebtelein, The Gospel of Matthew, New York, 1907; The Acts of the Apostles, New York, 1912; Edmundson, Church in Rome in the 1st Century, 1913; Smith, The Days of His Flesh, New York, 1911.

On the theology of Peter, consult the subject in works on Systematic or Biblical, Theology, and see also R. W. Dale The Atonement, 97-148. London 1875: C. A. Briggs, Messiah of the Apostles, 21-41, New York, 1895.

Among commentaries on 1,2 Peter may be mentioned: Brown, 3 volumes, Edinburgh, 1848-56; Demarest, 2 volumes, New York, 1851-65; Leighton, republished, Philadelphia, 1864; Lillie, New York, 1869; G. F. C. Fronmuller, in Lange's Comm., English translation, New York, 1874; Plumptre, Cambridge Bible, 1883; Spitta, Der zweite Brief des Petrus , Halle, 1885; F. B. Meyer, London, 1890; Lumby, Expositor's Bible , London, 1894; J. H. Jowett, London, 1905; Bigg, ICC , 1901.

Bibliography Information
Orr, James, M.A., D.D. General Editor. Entry for 'Peter, Simon'. International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. 1915.