Reading: Collective Behavior

Examples of collective behavior include: religious revival meetings, a panic in a burning theater, a sudden widespread interest in a website or clothing item, a collective social movement to improve the environment, or the rapid spread of rumors. These diverse actions fall within the area sociologists call collective behavior.

Collective behavior (David Feddes slides)

With one voice they cried out, “Away with this man! Release Barabbas to us!” Wanting to release Jesus, Pilate appealed to them again. But they kept shouting, "Crucify him! Crucify him!" … with loud shouts they insistently demanded that he be crucified, and their shouts prevailed. (Luke 23:18-23)

Peter said, “God has made this Jesus, whom you crucified, both Lord and Christ.” When the people heard this, they were cut to the heart… Those who accepted his message were baptized, and about three thousand were added to their number that day. (Acts 2:36-41)

When the crowd saw what Paul had done, they shouted in the Lycaonian language, “The gods have come down to us in human form!” … Then [others] won the crowd over. They stoned Paul and dragged him outside the city, thinking he was dead. (Acts 14:11-19)

 Collective behavior differs from group behavior in three ways:

1. collective behavior involves limited and short-lived social interaction while groups tend to remain together longer
2. collective behavior has no clear social boundaries; anyone can be a member of the collective while group membership is usually more discriminating
3. collective behavior generates weak and unconventional norms while groups tend to have stronger and more conventional norms

Traditionally, collective behavior in sociology includes four forms^[1]: the crowd, the public, the mass, and the social movement. While there is a degree of debate over what should be included under the label of "collective behavior" among sociologists today, often included are additional behaviors like: rumors, riots, trends, and fads.

Why Study Collective Behavior?

Aside from the intrinsic interest of understanding why large groups of people behave the way they do, there are practical reasons why the study of collective behavior is important. Two examples might illustrate the practical importance:

Another motivation for studying collective behavior is in order to actually change elements of society. This is the component of collective behavior known as "social movements." Again, an example may help illustrate this point:

Understanding how to organize a social movement to pursue social change is one of the areas studied by sociologists. Better understanding how to organize such a movement can provide movement members the tools they need to succeed.

Various forms of collective behavior are examined in detail in the following sections.

Crowds

A crowd is a gathering of people who share a purpose or intent and influence one another. Crowds are a common occurrence in modern life. Most sporting events, concerts, and other performances result in the gathering of crowds. Blumer (1951) differentiated four types of crowds:

• casual - loose collection of people with no real interaction (e.g, people at the mall)
• conventional - deliberately planned meeting (e.g., community meeting organized by political leaders)
• expressive - depicts a crowd at an emotionally charged event (e.g., a political rally or soccer game)
• acting - a crowd intent on accomplishing something (e.g., fans rushing a stage during or after a concert)

When crowd behavior is directed toward a specific, violent end, the result is a mob. Mobs tend to be highly emotional. Violent crowd behavior without a specific goal is a riot. Because riots do not have a specific end, it is assumed that their intention is to express general dissatisfaction.

Mob (David Feddes slides)
Stephen said, “You stiff-necked people… You always resist the Holy Spirit!” … When they heard this, they were furious and gnashed their teeth at him… yelling at the top of their voices, they all rushed at him, dragged him out of the city and began to stone him. (Acts 7:51-58)

Riot
They were furious and began shouting: “Great is Artemis of the Ephesians!” Soon the whole city was in an uproar… The assembly was in confusion: Some were shouting one thing, some another. Most of the people did not even know why they were there. (Acts 19:28-32)

Diffuse Crowds

Collective behavior can also refer to behavior that is diffused or dispersed over large distances. Not all collective behavior has to occur in the immediate vicinity of others (compact crowds). This is especially true with the advent of mass media, which allows for the rapid distribution of information around the world.

Theories of Crowd Behavior

Contagion Theory

Originally proposed by Gustave LeBon (1896), contagion theory proposes that crowds exert a hypnotic influence on their members. The hypnotic influence, combined with the anonymity of belonging to a large group of people, results in irrational, emotionally charged behavior. Or, as the name implies, the frenzy of the crowd is somehow contagious, like a disease, and the contagion feeds upon itself, growing with time. This also implies that the behavior of a crowd is an emergent property of the people coming together and not a property of the people themselves.

There are several problems with LeBon's theory. First, contagion theory presents members of crowds as irrational. Much crowd behavior, however, is actually the result of rational fear (e.g., being trapped in a burning theater) or a rational sense of injustice. Second, crowd behavior is often instigated by and guided by individuals. That the crowd seems to take on a life of its own is certainly true, but the influence of the individual should not be overlooked. Also, crowds can be emotional, but are capable of any emotion, not only the negative ones of anger and fear.

Convergence Theory

Convergence theory argues that the behavior of a crowd is not an emergent property of the crowd but is a result of like-minded individuals coming together. In other words, if a crowd becomes violent (a mob or riot), convergence theory would argue that this is not because the crowd encouraged violence but rather because people who wanted to become violent came together in the crowd.

The primary criticism of convergence theory is that there is a tendency for people to do things in a crowd that they would not do on their own. Crowds have an anonymizing effect on people, leading them to engage in sometimes outlandish behavior. Thus, while some crowds may result from like-minded individuals coming together to act collectively (e.g., political rally), some crowds actually spur individuals into behavior that they would otherwise not engage in.

Emergent-Norm Theory

Emergent-Norm Theory combines the above two theories, arguing that it is a combination of like-minded individuals, anonymity, and shared emotion that leads to crowd behavior. This theory argues that people come together with specific expectations and norms, but in the interactions that follow the development of the crowd, new expectations and norms can emerge, allowing for behavior that normally would not take place.

Crowds as "Gatherings"

More recent research into collective behavior has begun to change sociological thinking on crowds.^[2] This new approach distinguishes what brings people together as a gathering from what they do once gathered. Most gatherings are temporary and are formed by an assembling process. Individuals who gather are often acquainted and invited or informed about the gathering. Once gathered, the subgroups of individuals who already know one another tend to stay together throughout the gathering. There are, of course, some solitary individuals as well.

This line of research also dispenses with the idea that crowds impair judgment.^[2] Alcohol and drugs, which can contribute to deviant behavior, certainly can impair judgment and influence the actions of crowds, but crowds themselves do not necessarily impair judgment. The actions of individuals at gatherings also illustrate that individuals remain independent, sometimes responding to solicitations, sometimes ignoring them, sometimes interacting with their subgroup, and sometimes acting spontaneously.^[2]

Gatherings also exhibit dispersing processes that end the gatherings.^[2] Sometimes these are emergency dispersal, as when authorities arrive and try to end the gathering. Sometimes they are planned or the enthusiasm of the gathering wanes and people simply leave. Perhaps the key point of the "crowds as gatherings" approach is that there is a great deal of variation in gatherings.

Panic

Panic is a sudden terror which dominates thinking and often affects groups of people. Panics typically occur in disaster situations, such as during a fire, and may endanger the overall health of the affected group. Architects and city planners try to accommodate the symptoms of panic, such as herd behavior, during design and planning, often using simulations to determine the best way to lead people to a safe exit.

Riots

A riot is a form of civil disorder characterized by disorganized groups lashing out in a sudden and intense rash of violence, vandalism or other crime. While individuals may attempt to lead or control a riot, riots are typically chaotic and exhibit herd-like behavior. Riots often occur in reaction to a perceived grievance or out of dissent. Riots typically involve vandalism and the destruction of private and public property.  Targets can include shops, cars, restaurants, state-owned institutions, and religious buildings.

Mass Hysteria

Hysteria is a diagnostic label applied to a state of mind, one of unmanageable fear or emotional excesses. People who are "hysterical" often lose self-control due to the overwhelming fear.

The term also occurs in the phrase mass hysteria to describe mass public near-panic reactions.

Mass hysterias can also exhibit themselves in the sudden onset of psychogenic illnesses, or illnesses that are the result of psychology and not an external source (e.g., like a pollutant or infectious agent).

Fads

A fad, also known as a craze, refers to a fashion that becomes popular in a culture (or subcultures) relatively quickly, remains popular, often for a rather brief period, then loses popularity dramatically.

Real Christianity is more concerned with eternal reality than with trendy fads.

Rumors

A rumor is often viewed as "an unverified account or explanation of events circulating from person to person and pertaining to an object, event, or issue in public concern" (p. 33)^[4], though the definition can vary.^[5]

Rumors have three basic characteristics

1. they're transmitted by word of mouth
2. they provide "information" about a person, happening, or condition
3. they express and gratify the emotional needs of the community

There are also various types of rumors, including:

1. Pipe dream rumors, which reflect public desires and wished-for outcomes
2. Bogie or fear rumors that reflect feared outcomes
3. Wedge-driving rumors that intend to undermine group loyalty or interpersonal relations

As rumors travel they grow shorter, more concise, and more easily grasped.^[6] About 70% of details in a message are lost in the first 5 to 6 transmissions.^[6] Negative rumors are more likely to be disseminated than positive rumors. Rumors may also be political communication strategies. A "rumor bomb" uses the link between politics and various forms of media, from cell phones and internet, to radio, TV, and print. Political operatives spread rumors to weaken opponents.

Rumor bombs
They sharpen their tongues like swords 
and aim their words like deadly arrows. 
They shoot from ambush at the innocent man; they shoot at him suddenly, without fear… But God will shoot them with arrows; suddenly they will be struck down. He will turn their own tongues against them and bring them to ruin. (Psalm 64)

There are several good online resources for checking rumors and urban legends, including:

• snopes.com, particularly useful for checking email rumors
• urbanlegend.com
• factcheck.org, particularly useful for checking political rumors

The truth about rumors (David Feddes slides)
A gossip separates close friends… The words of a gossip are like choice morsels; they go down to a man's inmost parts. (Proverbs 16:28; 18:8)
If anyone considers himself religious and yet does not keep a tight rein on his tongue, he deceives himself and his religion is worthless. (James 1:26)

Avoid bad
 collective behavior
Do not spread false reports… Do not follow the crowd in doing wrong. (Exodus 23:2)
Do not be conformed to this world, but be transformed by the renewal of your mind. (Romans 12:2)

Healthy group behavior
Just as each of us has one body with many members, and these members do not all have the same function, so in Christ we who are many form one body, and each member belongs to all the others… Rejoice with those who rejoice; mourn with those who mourn. Live in harmony with one another.  (Romans 12:4-5)

Suggested Multimedia Resources

• The Final Report: LA Riots. http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/series/final-report/2770/Overview (Accessed May 5, 2008).

Additional Reading

McPhail, Clark and Ronald Wohlstein. 1983. “Individual and Collective Behavior WithinGatherings, Demonstrations, and Riots.” Annual Review of Sociology 9: 579-600. Granovetter, Mark. 1978. “Threshold Models of Collective Behavior.” American Journal of Sociology 83(6): 1420-1443. Snow, David, Louis Zurcher, and Robert Peters. 1981. "Victory Celebrations as Theater: A Dramaturgical Approach to Crowd Behavior." Symbolic Interaction 4:21-42. Vider, Stephen. 2004. "Rethinking Crowd Violence: Self-Categorization Theory and the Woodstock 1999 Riot." Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour 34:141-166. Cress, Daniel and David Snow. 1996. “Mobilization at the Margins: Resources, Benefactors, and the Viability of Homeless Social Movement Organizations.” American Sociological Review, 61:1098-1109. Staggenborg, Suzanne. 1988. “The Consequences of Professionalization and Formalization in the Pro- Choice Movement.” American Sociological Review, vol. 53(4), pp. 585-605. Piven, Frances Fox. 2006. Challenging Authority: How Ordinary People Change America. New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. McAdam, Doug. 1999. Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930 – 1970. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Meyer, David. 2004. “Protest and Political Opportunities.” Annual Review of Sociology, 30: 125-145.

Discussion Questions

• Have you ever been in a crowd and done something you would not have done otherwise?
• Do people typically panic in emergencies?
• Why do so many movies and TV shows suggest that people would panic if they "knew the truth"?
• Do you pass on rumors or chain emails without looking into them? Why or why not?

References