Reading: Sociological Practice

Basic Sociology

Basic sociology - sometimes referred to as professional sociology or pure research - is primarily concerned with the production of knowledge and empirical insights as an end in themselves. This approach is often referred to as "basic" or "academic" sociology because it advocates the pursuit of knowledge as a goal in and of itself, which does not necessarily need to find practical use or consumption in the wider world.

Applied Sociology

Applied Sociology - sometimes referred to as pragmatic or practical sociology - refers to a form of sociological practice that is primarily concerned with using sociological theories and research to intervene in the ongoing activities contained within applied or practical settings, like offices, parks, schools, and other places where daily life takes place. Applied sociologists use sociological theory, methods and skills to collect and analyze data and to communicate their findings and to understand and resolve social problems. Applied sociology meets the needs of persons and groups who want to use the knowledge generated through research to enhance their understanding of an issue and/or to evaluate a social problem. To that end, applied sociologists work with a variety of organizations, such as: government foundations, businesses, educational institutions, and social service agencies. Examples of work applied sociologists do include: investigating the social norms promoting or inhibiting the spread of AIDS; planning medical services and facilities for a target population, such as the homeless; or carrying out market research for companies. Individuals who do applied sociology differ from those who do basic sociology in that they use their research findings as well as sociological theory to resolve real-life problems and improve the social functioning of individuals and social structures.

Below are listed some of the most common techniques of applied sociology.

Program Evaluation

Program evaluation refers to the use of sociological methods (especially surveys, observational techniques, statistical analyses of records, and/or interviews) to measure the value (or lack thereof) of a specific program or pattern of action. In short, program evaluation uses systematic observations to assess whether a social program or practice is achieving its goals.

There are two primary forms of program evaluation: summative and formative. Summative evaluation seeks to discover whether or not a given program "worked." Did the program do what it was supposed to? If the changes match the expected outcome, the program worked, and sociologists can then determine just how well it worked and/or ways it might work better. If, on the other hand, there are no changes in the expected outcome or the changes are opposite to the expected outcome, the program did not work.

If a program is shown not to work, sociologists may be asked to do formative program evaluations. These evaluation studies are used to "form" new programs. Working with clients, a sociologist may utilize focus groups or surveys to gauge the needs of the organizations, the existing programs operated by the organization, the budget available for program development and implementation, and the problems associated with previous practices. The results of this conceptual work will allow the sociologist to suggest what programs are more likely to work within a given organization.

Program evaluation is the most widely used of the applied research techniques.^[5] Over the past 50 years many social programs have been developed with the goal of alleviating social problems like poverty and child abuse. The practices designed to implement these policies, like parenting classes to help curb the incidence of child abuse, are generally evaluated for effectiveness. In fact, social programs and practices funded by the government and/or the state must undergo evaluation. Because of this, program evaluation is a prime area of career development for applied sociologists.

Needs Assessment

Needs assessment research focuses on collecting data for the purpose of determining how many people in a community will need particular services or products for a period of time. An example of needs assessment research might be to determine the number of Latinos in an area who have could use counseling and education services.^[6] Since many first-generation Latino immigrants to the US do not speak fluent English, such a needs assessment could help counseling and education providers staff sufficient Spanish-language programs to provide the necessary services.

Social Impact Assessment

Social impact assessment refers to making an estimate of the likely consequences of proposed programs and projects on individuals, groups, neighborhoods, regions and other social entities.

Social Indicator Development

Social indicators are quantitative measures of significant social phenomena, such as the violent crime or divorce rate. The goal of social indicator development is to develop useful measures of the phenomenon of interest. For instance, if five murders occurred in a city in one year, that is useful information. However, it is even more useful if the size of the city is taken into account, as five murders in a city of 1,000 people is a lot higher rate of unnatural deaths than five murders in a city of one million people. Sociologists try to take into account factors like city size, context, and location when developing appropriate social indicators.

Cost-Benefit Analysis

Cost-benefit analysis involves making a quantitative comparison of the costs and benefits of a program or practice to assess whether the program should be changed or ended.

Clinical Sociology

Clinical sociology is the application of a sociological perspective to the analysis and design of interventions for positive social change at any level of social organization.^[9] Clinical analysis involves assessing the beliefs, policies, or practices of both individuals and the groups or organizations to which they belong with the goal of improving the situation. Intervention involves the creation of new beliefs, policies or practices as well as the change of those that currently exist in the situation.^[10] It is based on continuous analysis and can include a focus on prevention or promotion (e.g. preventing spousal violence or promoting a non-violent community). Clinical sociologists have different areas of specialization, such as: health promotion, aging, organizational development, or addressing social conflict. Some clinical sociologists use qualitative and/or quantitative research skills in assessment and evaluation in their intervention work. In that respect, they are like applied sociologists. For example, a clinical sociologist may assist corporations undergoing cultural and organizational change, helping executives to recognize problems and hindrances to change and develop solutions to those problems.

Public Sociology

Public Sociology refers to a form of sociological practice that is primarily concerned with using sociological theories and research to engage and inform public, political, and policy debates occurring within the larger social world. Public sociologists typically advocate engaging in political and cultural debates in order to educate students, mass media audiences, social movement groups, political officials, and other academics about the perils, pitfalls, and potential of various political and policy proposals as well as the needs of varied communities embedded within complex socio-historical structures and patterns. Theorists and researchers seek to utilize sociological theory and research in pursuit of a more just social world. Examples include seeking social justice for women and minorities, promoting human rights, alleviating poverty, and protecting the environment.

Additional Reading

Czaja, Ronald and Johnny Blair. 1996. Designing Surveys: A Guide to Decisions and Procedures. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.

Hollander, Jocelyn A. 2004. “The Social Contexts of Focus Groups.” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 33:602-37. 

Krueger, R.A. 1994. Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research 2nd edition Sage. Geertz, Clifford. 1973. The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays. New York Basic Books Berry, William D. 1993. Understanding Regression Assumptions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Best, Joel. 2001. Damned Lies and Statistics: Untangling Numbers from the Media, Politicians, and Activists. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press Bruhn, J. G. and H. M. Rebach (1996) Clinical Sociology: An Agenda For Action. New York: Plenum Press.

Burawoy, M. (2004) ‘Public Sociologies: Contradictions, Dilemmas, And Possibilities’, Social Forces 82(4): 1-16.

DeMartini, J. R. (1979) ‘Applied Sociology: An Attempt At Clarification And Assessment’, Teaching Sociology 6(4): 331-354.

DeMartini, J. R. (1982) ‘Basic And Applied Sociological Work: Divergence, Convergence, Or Peaceful Co-existence?’, The Journal Of Applied Behavioural Science 18(2): 203-215. Freeman, H. E. and P. H. Rossi (1984) ‘Furthering The Applied Side Of Sociology’, American Sociological Review 49(4): 571-580. Steele, S. F. and J. Price (2007) Applied Sociology: Terms, Topics, Tools And Tasks, 2nd ed. Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth Publishing. Turner, J. H. (1998) ‘Must Sociological Theory And Sociological Practice Be So Far Apart?: A Polemical Answer’, Sociological Perspectives 41(2): 243-258. Rossi, P. H. (1980) ‘Presidential Address: The Challenge And Opportunities Of Applied Social Research’, American Sociological Review 45(6): 889-904. Bickman, Leonard and Debra J. Rog. 2009. The Sage Handbook of Applied Research Methods, 2nd edition.

Discussion Questions

• What is the difference between basic and applied sociology?
• Are you, personally, more interested in basic or applied sociology?
• How can sociology be used to change the world?
• Should sociology be used to change the world?

References